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Figure 3.1:
Observed changes (°C) in annual temperature across Canada between 1948 and 2016, based on linear trends.
Source
Zhang et al., 2019.
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Headlines
Report Overview
Summary
Chapter
1
Chapter
2
Chapter
3
Chapter
4
Chapter
5
Chapter
6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter
10
Glossary
Headline Statements
View Chapter
Headline Statements
Report Overview
View Chapter
Acknowledgements
Why This Assessment Is Needed
Report Format
Guide to the Report
Executive Summary
View Chapter
Climate Change Impacts on Health
Natural Hazards
Air Quality
Infectious Diseases
Water Quality
Risks to Food Safety and Security
Mental Health
Vulnerability to the Health Effects of Climate Change
Current Impacts on the Health System
Adaptation and Preparedness
Making Adaptation Inclusive and Equitable
Adaptation of the Health System
Health Co-benefits of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Actions
Scaling-Up Efforts to Protect Canadians
Climate Change and Health Linkages
View Chapter
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Canada’s Changing Climate
1.3
Climate Change and Health
1.4
Growing Knowledge of Climate Change Impacts on the Health of Canadians
1.5
Demographic and Socio-Economic Trends in the Canadian Population
1.5.1
Population Growth
1.5.2
Social Capital and Networks
1.5.3
Racial and Ethnic Diversity
1.5.4
Economic Disparity and Inequity
1.5.5
Health Status
1.6
Climate Change Impacts on Indigenous Peoples’ Health
Climate Change and Indigenous Peoples’ Health in Canada
View Chapter
Summary
2.1
Introduction
2.1.1
First Nations, Inuit, and Métis Populations in Canada
2.2
Methods and Approach
2.3
Health Inequalities and Indigenous Peoples’ Health
2.3.1
Gender as a Determinant of Indigenous Peoples’ Health
2.4
Climate Change Risks to Indigenous Peoples’ Health
2.4.1
Natural Hazards
2.4.2
Mental Health and Well-Being
2.4.3
Air Quality
2.4.4
Food Safety and Security
2.4.5
Water Quality, Safety, and Security
2.4.6
Infectious Diseases
2.4.7
Health Systems
2.5
Indigenous Knowledges
2.5.1
Indigenous Knowledges and Climate Change
2.6
Indigenous Peoples’ Rights and National and International Commitments
2.6.1
Roles and Responsibilities in Indigenous Peoples’ Health and Climate Change
2.7
Knowledge Gaps
2.8
Conclusion
Natural Hazards
View Chapter
Summary
3.1
Introduction
3.2
Methods and Approach
3.3
General Trends in the Intensity and Frequency of Natural Hazards Influenced by Climate Change, and Links to Health
3.4
Average Warming and Extreme Heat Events
3.4.1
Impacts of Climate Change on Heat — Trends and Projections
3.4.2
Effects of Heat on Health
3.4.3
Populations at Increased Risk to Heat
3.4.4
Heat Adaptation Measures
3.5
Exposure to Ultraviolet Radiation
3.5.1
Impacts of Climate Change on Ultraviolet Light — Trends and Projections
3.5.2
Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation on Health
3.5.3
Populations at Increased Risk to Ultraviolet Radiation
3.5.4
Ultraviolet Adaptation Measures
3.6
Average Cold and Extreme Cold Events
3.6.1
Impacts of Climate Change on Cold — Trends and Projections
3.6.2
Effects of Cold Weather on Health
3.6.3
Annual Cold and Heat Mortality Comparison
3.6.4
Populations at Increased Risk to Cold
3.6.5
Cold Adaptation Measures
3.7
Drought
3.7.1
Impacts of Climate Change on Drought — Trends and Projections
3.7.2
Effects of Drought on Health
3.7.3
Populations at Increased Risk to Drought
3.7.4
Drought Adaptation Measures
3.8
Wildfires
3.8.1
Impacts of Climate Change on Wildfire — Trends and Projections
3.8.2
Effects of Wildfires on Health
3.8.3
Populations at Increased Risk to Wildfires
3.8.4
Wildfire Adaptation Measures
3.9
Precipitation and Storms
3.9.1
Impacts of Climate Change on Precipitation and Storms — Trends and Projections
3.9.2
The Effects of Precipitation and Storms on Health
3.9.3
Populations at Increased Risk to Storms and Precipitation
3.9.4
Storm and Precipitation Adaptation Measures
3.10
Floods, Coastal Flooding, and Coastal Erosion
3.10.1
Impacts of Climate Change on Floods, Coastal Flooding, and Coastal Erosion — Trends and Projections
3.10.2
Effects of Floods, Coastal Flooding, and Coastal Erosion on Health
3.10.3
Populations at Increased Risk to Floods, Coastal Flooding, and Coastal Erosion
3.10.4
Floods, Coastal Flooding, and Coastal Erosion Adaptation Measures
3.11
Landslides, Avalanches, and Thawing Permafrost
3.11.1
Impacts of Climate Change on Landslides, Avalanches, and Thawing Permafrost — Trends and Projections
3.11.2
Effects of Landslides, Avalanches, and Thawing Permafrost on Health
3.11.3
Populations at Increased Risk to Landslides, Avalanches, and Thawing Permafrost
3.11.4
Landslides, Avalanches, and Thawing Permafrost Adaptation Measures
3.12
Gaps in the Literature and Uncertainty of Scientific Evidence Related to the Impacts on Health of Natural Hazards Influenced by Climate Change
3.12.1
Health and Natural Hazards Data
3.12.2
Type of Natural Hazards Considered
3.12.3
Direct and Indirect Impacts on Health
3.12.4
Impacts of Combined Natural Hazard Events
3.12.5
Cascading Impacts of Hazards and Health System Impacts
3.12.6
Behaviours and Lifestyle
3.12.7
Assessment of Adaptation Measures
3.12.8
Economic Impacts of Health Effects and Adaptation and Mitigation Measures
3.12.9
Relative Importance of Vulnerability and Protection Factors
3.12.10
Equitable Representation in the Literature
3.12.11
Indigenous Populations
3.12.12
Factors Supporting Adaptation
3.12.13
Communication on Climate Change
3.13
Conclusion
Mental Health and Well-Being
View Chapter
Summary
4.1
Introduction
4.2
Key Terms
4.3
Methods and Approach
4.4
Mental Health Impacts of Climate Change
4.4.1
Causal Pathways
4.4.2
Timing of Impacts
4.4.3
Mental Health Impacts of Acute Hazards
4.4.4
Mental Health Impacts of Slow-Onset Hazards
4.4.5
Overarching Issues Related to Mental Health and a Changing Climate
4.5
Populations at Higher Risk
4.5.1
Indigenous Peoples
4.5.2
Sex and Gender
4.5.3
Children, Youth, and Older Adults
4.5.4
Low Socio-Economic Populations and the Homeless
4.5.5
People with Pre-Existing Health Conditions
4.5.6
Occupational Groups
4.6
Projected Mental Health Risks and Economic Costs
4.6.1
Projected Mental Health Risks from Climate Change
4.6.2
Projected Economic Costs of Health Impacts
4.7
Adaptation to Reduce Risks
4.7.1
Roles and Responsibilities for Adaptation to Reduce Risks
4.7.2
Policies and Programs that Reduce Risks
4.7.3
Co-Benefits of Addressing Climate Change that Improve Mental Health Outcomes
4.7.4
Barriers and Opportunities for Adaptation Actions
4.8
Knowledge Gaps
4.9
Conclusion
Air Quality
View Chapter
Summary
5.1
Introduction
5.2
Methods and Approach
5.3
Health Effects of Outdoor Air Pollution
5.3.1
Particulate Matter
5.3.2
Ozone
5.3.3
Populations at Higher Risk
5.4
Interactions Between Climate Change and Outdoor Air Pollution
5.4.1
Particulate Matter Effects on Climate
5.4.2
Methane and Ozone Effects on Climate
5.4.3
Effects of Climate Change on Air Quality
5.4.4
Air Quality Projections Under a Changing Climate
5.4.5
Air Quality Policies and Climate Change Mitigation
5.4.6
Key Uncertainties
5.5
Air Pollution Health Impacts Due to Climate Change and the Health Co-Benefits of Greenhouse Gas Mitigation
5.5.1
Air Pollution Health Impacts Due to Climate Change
5.5.2
Air Pollution Health Co-Benefits of Mitigation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions
5.5.3
Canadian Research Highlight: Quantifying Canadian Air Pollution Health Impacts of a Warming Climate and the Potential Health Co-Benefits of a Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Pathway
5.5.4
Conclusion
5.5.5
Key Uncertainties
5.6
Climate Change and Air Pollution from Wildfires
5.6.1
Wildfires in Canada in a Changing Climate
5.6.2
Health Effects of Air Pollution from Wildfires
5.6.3
The Health Burden of Wildfire Smoke in Recent Years
5.6.4
Quantifying Recent Canadian Air Pollution Health Impacts from Wildfire Smoke
5.6.5
Air Pollution Health Impacts of Wildfire Smoke Under Climate Change
5.6.6
Populations at Higher Risk
5.6.7
Conclusion
5.6.8
Key Uncertainties
5.7
Adaptation and Risk Mitigation for Health Effects of Outdoor Air Pollution
5.7.1
Outdoor Air Pollution
5.7.2
Wildfire Smoke
5.8
Impacts of Climate Change on Indoor Air Quality and Health
5.8.1
Building Airtightness
5.8.2
Impact of Changing Ambient Conditions on the Indoor Environment
5.8.3
Extreme Weather Events and Wildfires
5.8.4
Populations at Higher Risk
5.8.5
Adaptation
5.8.6
Key Uncertainties
5.9
Impacts of Climate Change on Aeroallergens
5.9.1
Impact of Climate Change on Pollen Concentrations, Distribution, and Seasonal Length in Canada
5.9.2
Health Effects of Changes in Aeroallergens Under Climate Change Scenarios
5.9.3
Adaptation
5.9.4
Key Uncertainties
5.10
Conclusion
5.10.1
Climate Change and Air Quality Health Impacts in Canada
5.10.2
Populations at Higher Risk
5.10.3
Adaptation
5.10.4
Knowledge Gaps
Infectious Diseases
View Chapter
Summary
6.1
Introduction
6.1.1
Infectious Disease Emergence and Re-Emergence
6.1.2
Infectious Diseases in Previous Climate Change and Health Assessments
6.1.3
Managing Infectious Disease Risks
6.2
Methods and Approach
6.3
Climate-Sensitive Health Risks, Projected Impacts of Climate Change, and Evidence of Impacts to Date
6.3.1
Vector-Borne Diseases
6.3.2
Zoonoses Directly Transmitted from Animals to Humans
6.3.3
Infectious Diseases Directly Transmitted from Human to Human
6.3.4
Infectious Diseases Acquired by Inhalation from Environmental Sources
6.4
Adaptation to Reduce Health Risks
6.4.1
Risk Assessment to Identify Current and Future Risks
6.4.2
Prioritization
6.4.3
Surveillance for Known Risks or Possible Future Risks
6.4.4
Interventions to Prevent and Control Disease Incidence
6.4.5
Adaptation Challenges for Communities and Members of Society at Increased Risk
6.4.6
Adaptation Gaps and Opportunities
6.5
Knowledge Gaps
6.6
Conclusion
Water Quality, Quantity, and Security
View Chapter
Summary
7.1
Introduction
7.2
Methods and Approach
7.3
Climate Change, Water, and Health
7.3.1
Indigenous Peoples — Water is Life
7.3.2
Water Quality
7.3.3
Water Quantity
7.3.4
Water Security and Society
7.4
Projected Health Security Risks and Impacts
7.5
Adaptation to Reduce Risks
7.5.1
Climate-Resilient Water Systems
7.5.2
Adaptation Options to Protect Water Quality, Quantity, and Security
7.6
Knowledge Gaps
7.7
Conclusion
Food Safety and Security
View Chapter
Summary
8.1
Introduction
8.2
Conceptual Framework and Methods
8.2.1
Conceptualizing Climate Change, Food Systems, and Human Health
8.2.2
Identifying, Assessing, and Synthesizing Evidence
8.3
Climate Change Impacts on Food Systems in Canada
8.4
Climate Change, Food Security, and Health in Canada
8.4.1
Food Security in Canada
8.4.2
Food Security as a Public Health Issue
8.4.3
Climate Change Impacts on the Pillars of Food Security
8.5
Climate Change Impacts on Food Safety in Canada
8.5.1
Climate Change, Food Safety, and Food-Borne Pathogens
8.5.2
Climate Change Impacts on Food Safety via Chemical Contaminants
8.6
Adaptation to Reduce Health Risks
8.6.1
Climate-Centred Adaptation Options
8.6.2
Vulnerability-Centred Adaptations
8.6.3
Adaptation Progress and Future Challenges
8.7
Knowledge Gaps and Recommendations
8.7.1
Food Security
8.7.2
Food Safety
8.8
Conclusion
Climate Change and Health Equity
View Chapter
Summary
9.1
Introduction
9.2
Methods and Approach
9.3
Determinants of Health and Health Equity
9.4
Climate Change Impacts on Health Equity
9.4.1
Dimensions of Equity in Climate Change and Health Vulnerability
9.4.2
An Intersectional Approach to Understanding Climate Change and Health Vulnerability
9.4.3
Drivers of Vulnerability: Determinants of Health and Health Inequities
9.4.4
Assessing Vulnerability to Climate Change Health Impacts
9.4.5
Integrating Health Equity into Climate Change and Health Actions
9.5
Adaptation
9.5.1
Adaptation Measures and Equitable Outcomes
9.5.2
Adaptation Actions to Enhance Health Equity
9.5.3
Planning Adaptation Measures with Equity in Mind
9.5.4
Evaluating Adaptation Measures for Health Equity
9.6
Knowledge Gaps
9.7
Conclusion
Adaptation and Health System Resilience
View Chapter
Summary
10.1
Introduction
10.2
Methods and Approach
10.2.1
Current Levels of Adaptation by Canadian Health Authorities
10.2.2
Opportunities and Barriers to Health Adaptation in Quebec
10.2.3
Health Co-Benefits of Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Measures
10.3
Health Adaptation to Protect Canadians
10.3.1
Health Adaptation Actors
10.3.2
Health Adaptation Process
10.3.3
Health Adaptation Challenges and Opportunities
10.3.4
Effectiveness of Health Adaptation
10.3.5
Status of Health Adaptation
10.4
Health System Vulnerability and Resilience to Climate Change Impacts
10.4.1
Health System Vulnerability
10.4.2
Economic Impacts of Climate Change Effects on Health and Health Systems
10.5
Climate-Resilient Health Systems
10.6
Health Co-Benefits of Adaptation and GHG Mitigation Measures
10.7
Knowledge Gaps
10.8
Conclusion
10.8.1
Scaling Up Health Adaptation
10.8.2
Indigenous Leadership and Collaboration
10.8.3
Working with Other Sectors
10.8.4
A National Health Adaptation Strategy
Glossary
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