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Figure 2.6:
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Definition of green infrastructure.
Source
Adapted from Brooke et al., 2017.
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Table of Contents
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Map of Adaptation Actions
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Foreword
Overview
Chapter
1
Chapter
2
Chapter
3
Chapter
4
Chapter
5
Chapter
6
Chapter
7
Chapter
8
Chapter
9
Foreword
View Chapter
Foreword
Overview
View Chapter
Introduction
Key findings of the National Issues Report
Moving forward
Introduction
View Chapter
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Canada’s National Knowledge Assessment process
1.3
Scope and structure of the National Issues Report
1.4
References
Cities and Towns
View Chapter
Key messages
2.1
Introduction
2.1.1
Cities and towns
2.1.2
Climate change impacts in cities and towns
2.2
Climate change is threatening Canada’s ageing infrastructure
2.2.1
Introduction
2.2.2
Approaches and mechanisms to reduce risks
2.2.3
Decision-support tools
2.2.4
Funding
2.2.5
Interdependencies
2.3
Enhancing green spaces helps cities and towns adapt to climate change
2.3.1
Introduction
2.3.2
Low impact development
2.3.3
Urban biodiversity
2.3.4
Urban forests
2.3.5
Water supply
2.3.6
Multifunctional landscape planning
2.4
Climate change will hit those already struggling in cities and towns the hardest
2.4.1
Impacts on individuals and communities
2.4.2
Social determinants
2.4.3
Strong social systems
2.4.4
Increasing equity
2.4.5
Place-based adaptation
2.5
Working together yields the most successful outcomes
2.5.1
Introduction
2.5.2
Co-production
2.5.3
Municipal governments
2.5.4
Private and public sectors
2.5.5
Citizens
2.5.6
Boundary organizations
2.6
Indigenous peoples in cities and towns are often affected in unique ways by climate change
2.6.1
Introduction
2.6.2
Climate change impacts for First Nations, Métis and Inuit peoples
2.6.3
Indigenous Knowledge and climate change
2.6.4
Adaptation and reconciliation
2.7
Cities and towns are moving from adaptation planning to implementation
2.7.1
Introduction
2.7.2
Barriers to adaptation
2.7.3
Advancing adaptation implementation
2.8
Monitoring and evaluation of adaptation is an important and often overlooked step
2.8.1
Introduction
2.8.2
Progress and approaches
2.9
Moving forward
2.9.1
Knowledge gaps and research needs
2.9.2
Emerging issues
2.10
Conclusion
2.11
References
Rural and Remote Communities
View Chapter
Key messages
3.1
Introduction
3.1.1
Rural and remote Canada
3.1.2
Approach to chapter development
3.2
Climate change is affecting rural and remote communities
3.2.1
Introduction
3.2.2
Knowledge-sharing and collaboration
3.3
Local and Indigenous Knowledge are key to adaptation and understanding climate impacts
3.3.1
Introduction
3.3.2
Monitoring and recording climate change impacts
3.3.3
Enhancing adaptive capacity and building resilience
3.3.4
Supporting sustainable risk reduction strategies
3.3.5
Informing place-based decision-making and policy on adaptation
3.4
Climate change is challenging livelihoods and economies
3.4.1
Introduction
3.4.2
Vulnerability and adaptation in the natural resource sectors
3.4.3
Adaptation responses and opportunities
3.5
Critical infrastructure and services are at risk
3.5.1
Introduction
3.5.2
Transportation and energy systems
3.5.3
Regional variation in climate change impacts to infrastructure
3.5.4
Adaptation responses and opportunities
3.6
Individual and community health and well-being are being negatively affected
3.6.1
Introduction
3.6.2
Availability of nourishing, accessible and preferred food and water sources
3.6.3
Infectious disease and exacerbating existing chronic illnesses
3.6.4
Increased risk of injury and mortality
3.6.5
Impacts on mental health and well-being
3.6.6
Adaptation responses and opportunities
3.7
Climate change is resulting in intangible losses and damages
3.7.1
Introduction
3.7.2
Shifting cultural practices and identity related to place
3.7.3
Changes to the social fabric of rural and remote communities
3.7.4
Loss and damage to landscapes and sites of cultural and social significance
3.7.5
Adaptation responses and opportunities
3.8
Local participation in adaptation decision-making improves outcomes
3.8.1
Introduction
3.8.2
The need for a collaborative approach to governance
3.8.3
Responding to governance challenges
3.9
Moving forward
3.9.1
Knowledge gaps and research needs
3.9.2
Emerging issues
3.10
Conclusion
3.11
References
Water Resources
View Chapter
Key Messages
4.1
Introduction
4.2
Climate change creates risks for water resources
4.2.1
Observed changes
4.2.2
Climate trends and projections
4.3
Effective coordination across complex water systems enhances adaptation
4.3.1
Introduction
4.3.2
Transboundary and watershed organizations
4.3.3
Adaptive capacity and the changing nature of water governance
4.3.4
Conclusion
4.4
Adaptation is advancing through innovation and adaptive management
4.4.1
Introduction
4.4.2
Institutional barriers to innovation
4.4.3
Leadership and water champions
4.4.4
Stakeholder participation and social learning
4.4.5
Adaptive management and water experiments
4.5
It is vital to engage the public and build awareness about adaptation opportunities
4.5.1
Introduction
4.5.2
Perceptions of water and climate
4.5.3
Building public support for adaptation
4.5.4
Diversifying policy tools
4.5.5
Conclusion
4.6
Water system vulnerability can be reduced through quality data and resilient design
4.6.1
Introduction
4.6.2
Water information systems
4.6.3
Water-related infrastructure
4.7
Moving forward
4.7.1
Knowledge gaps and research needs
4.8
Conclusion
4.9
References
Ecosystem Services
View Chapter
Key messages
5.1
Introduction
5.1.1
Chapter scope and structure
5.1.2
Canadian context
5.1.3
Ecosystems, ecosystem services and biodiversity
5.1.4
Direct and indirect drivers of change in ecosystem services
5.1.5
Feedbacks, thresholds and tipping points
5.2
Climate change is threatening Canada’s ecosystems and the services they provide
5.2.1
Introduction
5.2.2
Phenology
5.2.3
Changing distributions
5.2.4
Protected and conserved areas
5.3
Impacts will vary across Canada’s ecosystems and regions
5.3.1
Introduction
5.3.2
Northern regions
5.3.3
Mountain regions
5.3.4
Forested regions
5.3.5
Coastal regions
5.3.6
Enhancing adaptive capacity
5.4
Indigenous Knowledge is vital to maintaining ecosystems
5.4.1
Introduction
5.4.2
Indigenous ways of knowing
5.4.3
Co-management and Indigenous-led natural resource management
5.5
Nature-based approaches to adaptation maximize benefits
5.5.1
Introduction
5.5.2
Nature-based approaches to adaptation
5.5.2.1
Marshland restoration in response to sea-level rise
5.5.2.2
Low impact shoreline development
5.5.2.3
Urban forests
5.5.2.4
Greenways and greenbelts around urban areas
5.5.2.5
Nature-based vs. engineered approaches
5.6
Moving forward
5.6.1
Knowledge gaps
5.6.1.1
Climate change impacts to ecosystems and their services
5.6.1.2
Data and information
5.6.2
Emerging issues
5.6.2.1
Valuation of nature-based approaches
5.6.2.2
Improved integration of Indigenous Knowledge
5.6.2.3
Growing role for citizen science
5.6.2.4
Broadening collaboration
5.6.2.5
Innovative investments and partnerships
5.6.2.6
Growing private interest in nature-based approaches to adaptation
5.7
Conclusion
5.8
References
5.9
Appendix 1
Costs and Benefits of Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation
View Chapter
Key messages
6.1
Introduction
6.1.1
Introduction
6.1.2
Context
6.2
Economic analysis helps to inform adaptation planning
6.2.1
Introduction
6.2.2
Entry points for economic analysis in risk management frameworks
6.2.3
Shift towards policy-centric adaptation planning
6.2.4
Focus on early adaptation and the timing and sequencing of options
6.2.5
Implications of changing practices for economic analysis
6.3
Climate change leads to a wide range of economic and social costs
6.3.1
Direct and indirect costs
6.3.2
Macroeconomic costs
6.3.3
Welfare losses
6.3.4
Co-benefits and other co-impacts
6.3.5
Private and social costs
6.4
Costs related to extreme weather events are increasing
6.4.1
Introduction
6.4.2
Global trends in damages
6.4.3
Damage trends in Canada
6.4.4
What is influencing growing losses?
6.5
Future climate change costs for Canada will be high
6.5.1
Introduction
6.5.2
Multi-sector national cost assessments
6.5.3
Sector and regional cost assessments
6.5.3.1
Forestry
6.5.3.2
Coastal regions
6.5.3.3
Water levels
6.5.3.4
Human health
6.5.3.5
Ski resorts
6.5.3.6
Agriculture
6.5.4
Municipal cost assessments
6.6
Economic decision support tools help with assessing adaptation options
6.6.1
Introduction
6.6.2
Decision criteria
6.6.3
Conventional economic decision support tools
6.6.4
Key methodological challenges
6.6.4.1
Handling deep uncertainty
6.6.4.2
Discounting choices
6.6.4.3
Distributional considerations
6.7
The benefits of adaptation actions in Canada outweigh the costs
6.7.1
Economic analysis of adaptation options in Canada
6.7.1.1
Economic appraisals of adaptation
6.7.1.2
Cost of adaptation
6.7.2
The economic case for adaptation
6.7.3
Residual damages
6.8
There are economic barriers and limits to adaptation
6.8.1
Introduction
6.8.2
Barriers and limits to adaptation from an economic perspective
6.8.2.1
Market failures
6.8.2.2
Behavioural failures
6.8.2.3
Policy failures
6.8.3
Role for governments
6.9
Moving forward
6.9.1
Costs of inaction
6.9.2
Costs and benefits of adaptation
6.9.3
Emerging issues
6.10
Conclusion
6.11
References
Appendices
Sector Impacts and Adaptation
View Chapter
7.0 Key Messages
7.1
Introduction
7.2
Sustainable forest management is challenged by wildfires and pest outbreaks
7.2.1
Introduction
7.2.2
Impacts of wildfire
7.2.3
Adaptation
7.2.4
Moving forward
7.3
Changes to ocean health are affecting fisheries and associated livelihoods
7.3.1
Introduction
7.3.2
Water temperature
7.3.3
Dissolved oxygen
7.3.4
Acidification
7.3.5
Moving forward
7.4
Climate change brings benefits and threats to the agriculture sector
7.4.1
Introduction
7.4.2
Climate risks and regional adaptation planning
7.4.3
Inter-connectivity
7.4.4
Moving forward
7.5
Climate change brings new environmental challenges for mining
7.5.1
Introduction
7.5.2
Tailings containment structures
7.5.3
Reclamation of mining sites
7.5.4
Adaptation
7.5.5
Moving forward
7.6
Each link of the energy value chain can be vulnerable to climate change
7.6.1
Introduction
7.6.2
Risks to energy production and transmission
7.6.3
Adaptation
7.6.4
Moving forward
7.7
Extreme weather events impact transportation, disrupting supply chains
7.7.1
Introduction
7.7.2
Climate impacts on transportation systems
7.7.3
Understanding interdependencies
7.7.4
Adaptation
7.7.5
Moving forward
7.8
Climate change is leading to transformational changes in tourism
7.8.1
Introduction
7.8.2
Winter sports tourism
7.8.3
Arctic cruise tourism
7.8.4
“Last chance” tourism
7.8.5
Moving forward
7.9
Increased private sector involvement will accelerate adaptation across sectors
7.9.1
Introduction
7.9.2
Corporate adaptation in Canada
7.9.3
Adaptation actions
7.9.4
Knowledge gaps
7.9.5
Moving forward
7.10
Moving forward
7.10.1
Knowledge gaps and emerging issues
7.11
Conclusion
7.12
References
Climate Disclosure, Litigation and Finance
View Chapter
Key messages
8.1
Introduction
8.1.1
International initiatives
8.1.2
Canadian initiatives
8.2
Climate change risks and opportunities are business issues
8.2.1
Growing awareness of climate change risks and opportunities
8.3
Climate-related disclosure drives climate action
8.3.1
Importance of climate-related disclosure
8.3.2
Mandatory disclosure in Canada
8.3.3
Voluntary disclosure
8.3.4
Emerging practices
8.3.5
Opportunity for improvement: Data and methodology gaps
8.4
Transitioning to a climate-resilient and low-carbon economy requires significant investments
8.4.1
Co-benefits of financing adaptation and GHG emissions reduction
8.4.2
Scope of transition
8.4.3
Financing mechanisms for climate change adaptation and GHG emissions reduction
8.4.4
Challenges for climate-related investing
8.5
Investments in climate risk reduction build resilience
8.5.1
Investments in climate resilience are cost-effective
8.5.2
Managing risks of climate-related extremes and related activities in Canada
8.5.2.1
Risk information
8.5.2.2
Risk reduction and prevention measures
8.5.2.3
Reconstruction
8.5.2.4
Early warning and emergency preparedness
8.5.2.5
Risk financing and risk transfer (insurance and alternative risk transfer)
8.6
Climate litigation is increasing against governments in Canada
8.6.1
Introduction
8.6.2
Litigation to compel government action
8.6.3
Litigation seeking to change government actions, approvals or decisions
8.6.4
Litigation relating to failure to adapt infrastructure
8.7
Climate litigation against the private sector is a potential risk
8.7.1
Potential for disclosure liability
8.7.2
Potential for litigation related to failure to adapt infrastructure
8.7.3
Litigation alleging corporate responsibility for climate change
8.8
Moving forward
8.8.1
Knowledge gaps
8.9
Conclusion
8.10
References
International Dimensions
View Chapter
Key messages
9.1
Introduction
9.1.1
Overview of findings from past assessments
9.2
Climate change affects Arctic shipping and threatens sovereignty
9.2.1
Introduction
9.2.2
Climate, sea ice and Arctic navigation
9.2.3
Climate-related risks to Canada’s control over the Northwest Passage
9.2.4
Strategies to adapt to increased shipping activity in the Northwest Passage
9.3
Transboundary marine and freshwater agreements generally do not consider climate change
9.3.1
Introduction
9.3.2
Marine agreements
9.3.3
Freshwater agreements
9.4
Climate change presents risks and opportunities for international trade
9.4.1
Introduction
9.4.2
Trade and climate change risk
9.4.3
Adaptation
9.5
Climate-related human migration and displacement will increase demands for immigration to Canada
9.5.1
Introduction
9.5.2
The climate-migration nexus
9.5.3
Current and estimated climate-related migration
9.5.4
Future outlook for Canada
9.6
Increased demand for international assistance is expected
9.6.1
Introduction
9.6.2
The climate-security connection
9.6.3
Demands on international assistance
9.6.4
Canada’s response and outlook
9.7
Moving forward
9.7.1
Knowledge gaps and research needs
9.7.1.1
Governance and mainstreaming
9.7.1.2
Global food systems
9.7.1.3
Assessment tools that accommodate uncertainty and complexity
9.7.1.4
Strengthened economic modelling
9.8
Conclusion
9.9
References
